Leptoglossus gonagra (Fabricius)

Synonyms. Leptoglossus australis (Fabricius), Leptoglossus membranaceus (Fabricius)

Family. Coreidae

Order. Hemiptera

Common name. Squash bug, kepik labu (Indonesia)

Distribution. Leptoglossus gonagra is found in Africa, the Caribbean, Central America, North America, Southern Asia, Micronesia, and the tropical and subtropical regions of Australia.

Host plants. Leptoglossus gonagra is a polyphagous insect known to feed on various plants, including snake gourd, melon, cucumber, pumpkin, and other cucurbits. Additionally, it has been reported to feed on citrus, eggplant, guava, legumes, passionfruit, and tomato. 

Description and biology. Adults of this species are typically 18-24 mm long and have a black or dark brown coloration. They can be recognized by a curved orange line behind their head, as well as their long, banded antennae that feature black and orange stripes (Figure 1). 

Figure 1. Leaf-footed bug Leptoglossus gonagra (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Additionally, the underside of their thorax and abdomen have small orange spots, while their rear legs are enlarged and flattened, and each of the two tibiae has a pair of orange spots (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Leptoglossus gonagra (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

The female insects lay their eggs in batches of approximately 30 on the leaves, stems, and even the tendrils of the plant. After 6-7 days, the eggs hatch into nymphs. The nymphs go through five stages over 40-50 days. Initially, the young nymphs are reddish in color, but as they progress from one molt to the next, they become darker. They tend to cluster together in the beginning but gradually disperse more widely around the plant.

Nature of damage. Damage is caused by both nymphs and adult sucking sap from stems and tender fruits. Stems turn yellow-brown and they may die if infestations are high. Feeding on fruits causes them to shrivel, rot and drop. Secondary fungal infection by Nematospora may occur on citrus fruits. The bugs are not considered major pests, and only occasionally reach numbers that cause economic damage. 

Natural enemies. Little is known about its natural enemies.

References

Butani DK. 1979. Insects and Fruits. Delhi: Periodical Expert Book Agency.

Fondio D, Yeboue NL, Soro S, Tano DKC. 2020. Biological parameters of Leptoglossus membranaceus Fabricius. 1781 (Heteroptera: Coreidae) cucumber pest (Tokyo F1 and poinsett varieties) in the rainy season in Daloa (Cote d'Ivoire). J Entomol Zool Studies 8(2): 1618-1624.

Kalshoven LGE. 1981. Pests of crops in Indonesia, (Revised and translated by PA van der Laan). Jakarta: PT Ichtiar Baru.

Shepard BM, Carner GR, Barrion AT, Ooi PAC, van den Berg H. 1999. Insects and their natural enemies associated with vegetables and soybean in Southeast Asia. Orangeburg (SC), USA: Quality Printing Company.

van Reenen JA. 1973. Behaviour and biology of Leptoglossus membranaceus (Fabricius) in the Transvaal, with description of the genitalia (Heteroptera: Coreidae). Annals of The Transvaal Museum 28(14): 257-286.

Author: Aunu Rauf.

Citation: https://indoagriinsecta.blogspot.com/2024/02/leptoglossus-gonagra.html

Papilio demoleus malayanus Wallace

Family. Papilionidae.

Order. Lepidoptera.

Common name. Lime swallowtail, kupu-kupu jeruk (Indonesia)

Distribution. Papilio demoleus malayanus is native to southern Myanmar and the Malay Peninsula. Its range has expanded into Indonesia, the Philippines, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Australia, Europe, and the Caribbean.

Host plants. P. d. malayanus feeds on plants in the Citrus genus of the Rutaceae family. It feeds on Citrus hystrix DC, Citrus aurantifolia Swingle, Citrus amblyocarpa Ochse, Citrus grandis Osbeck, Citrus×microcarpa (Bunge) Wijnands, and Citrus maxima (Brum.) Merr.

Description and biology. Adult butterflies have a striking pattern with yellow coloring on their body and yellow and black markings on their wings (Figure 1). Their hind wings lack a tail-like projection and feature a brick-red oval spot on the upper margin and a blue spot near the lower margin. The wingspan of these butterflies is between 80 to 100 mm.

Figure 1. The lime swallowtail, Papilio demoleus malayanus (Photo:© Aunu Rauf}

The eggs of this particular species measure between 1.0 to 1.5 mm in diameter. They are spherical in shape, have a smooth surface, and are pale yellow in color (Figure 2). The eggs are laid individually on the surface of young leaves and twigs. It takes around 3 to 5 days for the eggs to hatch.

Figure 2. Egg of Papilio demoleus malayanus on the surface of young leaf (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

When they are young, the larvae appear blackish-brown with conspicuous milky-white markings and bumps. They look similar to bird droppings (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Young larva of Papilio demoleus malayanus on lime leaf (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

When fully grown, the larvae are about 3-4 cm in length. They are a rich, brilliant green color that is both smooth and velvety, lacking any tubercles. Dusky bronze oblique bands are visible on the lateral abdominal segments. These bands do not meet on the dorsum (Figure 4). The total duration of the larval stage ranges from 11 to 16 days.

Figure 4. Full grown larva of Papilio demoleus malayanus on lime leaf (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

As the larva reaches the end of its fifth instar, its body becomes shorter and it eventually stops moving. It then uses silk to hang itself from a twig or other object and enters the prepupal stage (Figure 5). This stage lasts for approximately 1 day on average.

Figure 5. Prepupa of Papilio demoleus malayanus (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

During the pupation stage, the insect transforms into a chrysalis that attaches to the underside of twigs. The chrysalis is supported by a thin silken thread (Figure 6). Initially, the chrysalis is mostly green and turns straw to brown before the adult insect emerges. The pupal period lasts for 8-12 days.

Figure 6. Pupa of Papilio demoleus malayanus attached on a twig (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Nature of damage. Larvae feed on the foliage of citrus trees.  The species can be a serious pest of young citrus trees and cause damage in nurseries but is usually considered a minor pest of mature trees.

Natural enemies. According to Matsumoto's 1996 report, parasitoids Brachymeria sp. and Eulophidae emerged from pupae of P. d. malayanus collected from larvae in Bogor.

Remarks. Lime swallowtail (Papilio demoleus malayanus) is the most common butterfly attacking citrus saplings in urban habitats in Bogor.

References

Guerrero KA, Veloz D, Boyce SL, Farrell BD. 2004. First new world documentation of an old word citrus pest, the lime swallowtail Papilio demoleus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), in the Dominican Republic (Hispaniola). American Entomologist 50(4): 227-229.

Kato S. 1989. Notes on Papilio demoleus L. collected in Java, Indonesia (Lepidoptera Papilionidae). Tyo to Ga 40: 189-191.

Lambkin TA. 2017. Papilio demoleus malayanus Wallace, 1865 (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) on Dauan Isand, Torres Strait, Queensland and recent confirmation of P. d. sthenelinus Rotschild, 1895 in the Lesser Sunda Islands. Australian Entomologist 44(2): 65-74.

Matsumoto K. 1996. Establishment of Papilio demoleus L. (Papilionidae) in Java. J Lep. Soc.50(2): 139-140.

Moonen JJM.1991. Papilio demoleus L. in Java (Lep.: Papilionidae). Tyo to Ga 42(2): 93-94.

Moonen JJM. 1998. Notes on some Papilionidae Lepidoptera) from Indonesia. Trans. Lepid. Soc. Japan 49(3): 219-228.

Morgun DV, Wiemers M. 2012. First record of the lime swallowtail Papilio demoleus Linnaeus, 1758 (Lepidoptera, Papilionidae) in Europe. J Res Lepid 45: 85-89.

Author: Aunu Rauf.
Citation: https://indoagriinsecta.blogspot.com/2024/02/papilio-demoleus-malayanus.html

Athalia proxima (Kluger)

Family. Tenthredinidae.

Order. Hymenoptera.

Common name. Mustard sawfly, kerawai daun sawi (Indonesia).

Distribution. Japan, South China, South  India, Indonesia, Korea, Myanmar, Taiwan.

Host plants. Plants of the family Brassicaceae such as Brassica juncea (L.), B. napus L., B. nigra (L.),  B. rapa L., Lepidium sativum L., and Raphanus rapanistrum L. 

Description and biology. The adult wasp is orange-yellow with black markings on the body. It has smoky wings with black veins and a body length of 7-8 mm (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Adult of Athalia proxima (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Each egg is laid individually and inserted into leaf tissues using a saw-like ovipositor. The eggs have a cream color and typically hatch within 3-4 days. The larvae are dark gray and have three thoracic legs and eight pairs of abdominal legs (Figure 2). When fully grown, the larvae can measure between 16-20 mm in length.

Figure 2. Larvae of Athalia proxima (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

They pass through five instars in males and six instars in females. When touched, the larvae suddenly fall to the ground and display feign death behavior. The total duration of the larval stage varies from 20 to 30 days. Pupation occurs in an oval cocoon in the soil, and the pupal stage lasts for 8 to 12 days. The entire life cycle of these insects is completed within 30 to 38 days.

Nature of damage. Larvae are active during the day and typically feed on all leaves except the midrib (Figure 3), mostly in the early morning and evening hours.

Figure 3. Radish crop damaged by Athalia proxima (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Remarks. Sawflies are rare insects in Indonesia. I only found Athalia proxima in the highlands at an altitude of 1,500 meters.

References

Abe M. 1988. A biosystematic study of the genus Athalia Leach of Japan (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae). Esakia (6): 91-131.

Atwal AS, Dhaliwal GS. 1997. Agricultural Pests of South Asia and Their Management. New Delhi: Kalyani Publishers.

Haris A. 2007. Sawflies (Hymenoptera: Symphyta, Tenthredinidae) from Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam. Zool Med Leiden 81(8): 149-159.

Muniappan R., Shepard BM, Carner GR, Ooi PAC. 2012. Arthropod Pests of Horticultural Crops in Tropical Asia. Oxfordshire (UK): CABI.

Park B, Choi J-K, Wei M, Lee J-W. 2017. A taxonomic review of the genus Athalia (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae: Athaliinae) from South Korea. Anim Syst Evol Divers 32(2): 100-111.

Author: Aunu Rauf
Citation: https://indoagriinsecta.blogspot.com/2024/01/athalia-proxima.html

Graphium agamemnon L.

Family. Papilionidae

Order. Lepidoptera.

Common name. Tailed jay, kupu-kupu lurik or kupu-kupu macan (Indonesia).

Distribution. South and Southeast Asia, Australia, and Pacific Islands.

Host plants. Soursop, Annona muricata L., sugar apple, Annona squamosa L. (Annonaceae), and champak, Magnolia champaca (L.) (Magnoliaceae).

Description and biology. The adults of G. agamemnon are black with bright green spots and streaks on wings with a span of 85-100 mm (Figure 1). The butterfly is restless and flies fast.

Figure 1. The tailed jay butterfly, Graphium agamemnon (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

The eggs are placed singly on young leaves(Figure 2). The egg has a diameter of approximately 1.0 mm and is spherical, creamy white in color. The egg hatches in 3 days.

Figure 2. Egg of Graphium agamemnon deposited singly on young leaf of  soursop (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

The newly hatched larva measures around 3-4 mm in length. After a few hours, the body turns a dark brown color from its initial pale yellowish brown color. On the thoracic and posterior abdominal segments, there are rather large, white dorsal patches (Figure 3). Two pairs of lateral spines are yellowish brown on each of the three thoracic segments, plus an additional pair at the anal segment. Moreover, rows of short dorsal-lateral tubercles with long setae are present on the body. 

Figure 3. First instar larva of Graphium agamemnon (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

The thoracic segments of the 2nd instar larva are noticeably larger (Figure 4). The anal and thoracic spines have a light yellowish-brown color. The larva is about 8 mm long. The yellowish-brown body color darkens to a purplish brown.

Figure 4, Second instar larva of Graphium agamemnon (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

The body color of the 3rd instar is dark green in the thoracic region and paler towards the posterior (Figure 5). Numerous small markings, dark in color, appear on the body surface towards the end of this instar. The anal and thoracic spines turn black at the same moment. The size of the 3rd instar is 13-18 mm.

Figure 5. Third instar larva of Graphium agamemnon (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

The body of the 4th instar larva is yellowish green with small dark green markings scattered throughout (Figure 6). Each thoracic spine on the 3rd thoracic segment now bears an orange circular base. The body length ranges from 20 to 25 mm.

Figure 6. Fourth instar larva of Graphium agamemnon (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

The 5th instar larva resembles the late 4th instar, with the body being more uniformly colored of green (Figure 7). The 5th instar larva has a body length of 30-40 mm. The total larval stage lasts 15-20 days.

Figure 7. Fifth instar larva of Graphium agamemnon (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

The length of the body gradually decreases at the end of the 5th instar. After searching for a pupation site for a while, the larva eventually finds an upright spot to rest on the leaf's surface and transforms into a prepupa (Figure 8). The larva is now building a silk pad and girdle, both essential for the subsequent pupation.

Figure 8. Prepupa of Graphium agamemnon (Photo: © Aunu Rauf) 

A silk thread encircling the thorax of the pupa suspends it at an angle on the surface of the twig or leaf (Figure 9). At its broadest point, the grassy green pupa measures 6–8 mm in width and 25–34 mm in length. The pupal stage spans 10-13 days.

Figure 9. Pupa of Graphium agamemnon suspended on a lower surface of the leaf (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Nature of damage. Young larvae feed on tender leaves and start feeding on older leaves as they grow. The insect may only cause minor damage to a fruiting tree, but it can seriously defoliate saplings, causing their development to be greatly delayed. 

Natural enemies. In Malaysia, the larvae are often parasitized by a braconid, Apanteles papilionis Vier. In Bogor, I found most of the eggs (Figure 10) were parasitized by an encyrtid, most probably Ooencyrtus papilionis Ashmead (Figure 11).

Figure 10. Egg of Graphium agamemnon with parasitoid exit holes (Photo: © Aunu Rauf) 

Figure 11. Parasitoid that emerged from egg of Graphium agamemnon (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

References

Cendana SM, Gabriel BP, Magalonna ED. 1984. Insect pests of fruit plants in the Philippines. Los Banos: Dept. Entomology, UPLB.

Dupont F, Sheepmaker GJ. 1936. Uit Java's Vlinderleven. Batavia: NV Bookhandel en Drukkerij Visser & Co.

Kalshoven LGE. 1951. De Plagen van de Cultuur-Gewassen in Indonesie. Deel II. Bandoeng: NV Uitgeverij W van Hoeve . S-Gravenhage.

Muniappan R., Shepard BM, Carner GR, Ooi PAC. 2012. Arthropod Pests of Horticultural Crops in Tropical Asia. Oxfordshire (UK): CABI.

Roepke W.1932. De Vlinders van Java. Batavia: E Dunlop & Co.

Zhang Y-Z, Li W, Huang D-W. 2005. A taxonomic study of Chinese species of Ooencyrtus (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Zoological Studies 44(3): 347-360.

Internet: https://butterflycircle.blogspot.com/2009/05/life-history-of-tailed-jay.html (click here).

Author: Aunu Rauf
Citation: https://indoagriinsecta.blogspot.com/2024/01/graphium-agamemnon.html

Vatiga illudens (Drake)

Family. Tingidae.

Order. Hemiptera.

Common name. Cassava lace bug, kepik renda singkong (Indonesia).

Distribution. The native ranges of V. illudens include the Carribean, Guyana, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Cuba, Peru, Paraguay, Argentina, and Venezuela. Recently, well-established populations of V. illudens have been reported from Florida (USA) and Reunion Island (Africa). The presence of the insect in Indonesia was first reported from East Java by Puspitarini et al. (2021). It has now spread widely throughout Java and Sumatera.

Host plants. Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz).

Description and biology. Adults of V. illudens are ash gray and measure about 3 mm long by 1 mm wide (Figure 1). The average life cycle of V. illudens lasts 22.0 days. Adult females live about 64.5 days with a preoviposition period of 7.0 days; while males live 17.7 days. The adults do not normally fly when on the plant, but do so over several meters when provoked.

Figure 1. Adult of Vatiga illudens (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

The female can lay, on average, 145.3 eggs, which she inserts into leaf tissue, preferably next to central nerves where they converge near the petiole. They thus become unnoticeable. The egg stage lasts approximately 10.1 days. Nymphs are off-white in color, with numerous spinules over their body (Figure 2). These nymphs undergo five instars whose average duration is 11.9 days.

Figure 2. Nymph of Vatiga illudens (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Both adults and nymphs are found in large quantities on the undersides of leaves (Figure 3), and show preference for the basal and middle leaves of plants. Lace bug attacks occur mainly during the dry season.

Figure 3. The colony of Vatiga illudens on the underside of cassava leaf (Photo: © Wawan Yuandi)

Nature of damage. Adults and nymphs feed on the undersurface of the lower plant leaves. Damaged leaves have small yellow spots that later turn reddish brown, resembling mite damage. This damage can reduce plant photosynthesis. In severe cases, the affected leaves have an almost white appearance (Figure 4). Potential yield losses caused by this insect is not known. 

Figure 4. Cassava leaf damaged by Vatiga illudens (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Natural enemies. A hemipteran of the family Miridae (Stethoconus sp.) (Figure 5) was observed preying on the nymphs and adults of V. illudens in the field.

Figure 5. Predatory mirid Stethoconus sp. (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Additionally, several lace bugs were infected by an entomopathogenic fungus (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Adult of Vatiga illudens infected by entomopathogenic fungus (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

References

Halbert S. 2010. The cassava lace bug, Vatiga illudens (Drake) (Hemiptera: Tingidae), a new wxotic lace bug in Florida. Pest Alert. FDACS-P-01727. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services.

Puspitarini RD, Fernando I, Setiawan Y, Anggraini D, Rizqi HA. 2021. First record of the cassava lace bug Vatiga illudens (Drake, 1922) (Hemiptera: Tingidae) from East Java, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 22(7): 2870-2876.

Streito J-C, Guilbert E, Merion S, Minatchy J, Pastou D. 2012. Premier signalement de Vatiga illudens (Drake, 1922), nouveau ravageur du Manioc dans les Mascareignes (Hemiptera: Tingidae). L'Entomologiste, tome 68 (6): 357-360.

Yasunaga T, Takai M, Nakatani Y. 1997. Species of the genus Stethoconus of Japan (Heteroptera, Miridae): Predaceous Deraecorine plant bugs associated with lace bugs (Tingidae). Appl Entomol Zool 32(1): 261-264.

Wengrat APGS, Rondon C, Barilli DR, Uemura-Lima DH, Fredrich JE, Pratis SBQ, Pietrowski V. 2015. Biologia de Vatiga illudens (Drake) (Hemiptera: Tingidae) em mandioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz). XVI Congresso Brasileiro de Mandioca.

Author: Aunu Rauf.
Citation: https://indoagriinsecta.blogspot.com/2024/01/vatiga-illudens.html

Hamiltonius (=Apoderus) trinotatus (Faust)

Family. Initially, the species used to be classified within the large Curculionidae family. Currently, it is included in the Attelabidae family.

Order. Coleoptera

Common name. Leaf-rolling weevil.

Distribution. In Indonesia, the species is found in Java and Sumatera.

Host plants. According to Kalshoven (1956), bungur (Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers.), Glochidion sp., huni peucang (Antidesma tetrandrum Blume) are the the host plants of H. trinotatus in the teak forests; while kolowe (Chydenanthus excelsa Blume), anyang-anyang (Elaeocarpus grandiflora Sm.), tuba (Derris sp.), and bungur (Lagerstroemia ovalifola Teijsm. & Binn.) in the village plantations, parks etc.

Description and Biology. The beetle is brown, about 6 mm long, and marked by yellow longitudinal stripes on the base of the elytra (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Adult of Hamiltonius trinotatus (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

The female weevils construct leaf rolls from intact young leaves (Figure 2), in which one or two eggs are laid. The larva develops by feeding on the decaying and decayed leaf tissues in the interior parts of the rolls, and they pupate within the rolls too.

Figure 2. Leaf roll on Syzygium cumini made by Hamiltonius trinotatus (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

The newly emerged weevils soon start to feed on the young leaves which are perforated then in the manner shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Leaf of Syzygium cumini with feeding holes (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Nature of damage. This insect rarely causes economic damage.

Remarks. I found the weevil H. trinotatus as well as its leaf roll on jamblang (Syzygium cumini L.) and jambu air semarang (Syzygium samarangense (Blume) Merr. & Perry) grown in the front yard of my house. Another leaf-rolling weevil species found in the front yard was Strigapoderus javanicus.

Reference

Kalshoven LGE. 1956. Notes on the habits and ecology of Indonesian forest insects of minor importance: III Curculionidae. Entomologische Berichten 16: 77-88.

Author: Aunu Rauf
Citation: https://indoagriinsecta.blogspot.com/2024/01/hamiltonius-trinotatus.html

Papilio polytes L.

Family. Papilionidae

Order. Lepidoptera

Common name. Common mormon, kupu-kupu mutiara (Indonesia)

Distribution. South and Southeast Asia.

Host plants. Plants in the Rutaceae family, such as Citrus spp, orangeberry (Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC), and pink lime-berry (Clausena excavata Burm. F.). 

Description and biology. The male butterfly is black in color with a row of white spots on the outer margin of the forewings (Figure 1), and rather larger markings are present across the hindwings. The female (not shown) has almost the same color except that the outer margin of the forewings are gray. It also has a group of semi-rectangular pale yellowish-white markings in the center of the hindwings.

Figure 1. The common mormon butterfly, Papilio polytes ♂ (Photo:© Aunu Rauf}

The egg is laid singly on young leaves and shoots (Figure 2). It is yellowish in color and the incubation period is about 4 days.

Figure 2. Egg of Papilio polytes deposited singly on the surface of young leaf (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Young larvae (1st-4th instars) are blackish-brown with milky white markings resembling bird droppings (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Young larva of Papilio polytes on lime leaf (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Older larvae (5th instar) are green with whitish oblique stripes on lateral abdominal segments that do not meet on the dorsum (Figure 4). Larvae feed on shoots and leaves. The total larval period is 11-27 days.

Figure 4. Late instar larva of Papilio polytes on lime leaf (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Toward the end of the 5th instar, the body gradually shortens in length, and the larva comes to rest and uses silk to suspend itself from a twig, and becomes a prepupa (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Prepupa of Papilio polytes attached on a twig (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Pupation takes place as a chrysalis attached to the underside of twigs and supported by a thin silken thread (Figure 6). The pupa is naked, pale green in color and the pupal period takes 8-12 days. 

Figure 6. Pupa of Papilio polytes attached on a twig (Photo: © Aunu Rauf)

Nature of damage. The larvae are voracious leaf feeders. The damage is of not much consequence on older trees.

Natural enemies. Natural enemies usually keep the pest in check. 

Remarks. I found two early instar larvae of Papilio polytes on a potted lime tree, and they were reared until adult emergence. The emerged butterflies were both males and most probably subspecies javanus (Papilio polytes javanus).

References

Butani DK. 1979. Insects and Fruits. Delhi: Periodical Expert Book Agency.

Cendana SM, Gabriel BP, Magalonna ED. 1984. Insect pests of fruit plants in the Philippines. Los Banos: Dept. Entomology, UPLB.

Dupont F, Sheepmaker GJ. 1936. Uit Java's Vlinderleven. Batavia: NV Bookhandel en Drukkerij Visser & Co.

Kalshoven LGE. 1951. De Plagen van de Cultuur-Gewassen in Indonesie. Deel II. Bandoeng: NV Uitgeverij W van Hoeve . S-Gravenhage.

Muniappan R., Shepard BM, Carner GR, Ooi PAC. 2012. Arthropod Pests of Horticultural Crops in Tropical Asia. Oxfordshire (UK): CABI.

Tjoa Tjien Mo. 1956. Memberantas Hama-Hama Djeruk. Pusat Djawatan Pertanian Rakyat. Bandung: Ganaco.

Yunus A, Balasubramanian A. 1981. Major crop pests in Peninsular Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Agriculture.

Internet: https://butterflycircle.blogspot.com/2011/10/life-history-of-common-mormon.html (click here).

Author: Aunu Rauf
Citation: https://indoagriinsecta.blogspot.com/2024/01/papilio-polytes.html